Summary
Biochar is increasingly promoted as a climate-smart amendment, yet its long-term effects on nutrient retention and greenhouse gas emissions in flooded rice systems remain poorly resolved. Here, we combine a 13 year field trial with graded straw biochar applications (0-22.5 t ha<sup>-1</sup> season<sup>-1</sup>) and a 60 day anaerobic incubation of year-13 soils to investigate how mineral and microbial processes regulate soil organic carbon (SOC), phosphorus (P), and methane (CH<sub>4</sub>) dynamics. Long-term biochar progressively depleted Fe oxides and enriched Ca phases, promoting the formation of Ca-bridged OC-mineral-P complexes that costabilize OC and P. Under prolonged anoxia, soils amended with high rates of biochar exhibited 2.5-3.2-fold slower Fe(III) reduction and delayed sulfat
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